The Long Journey to Today
East Indians in Guyana
Dr. Lomarsh Roopnarine

The Indian Heritage monument on Camp Street, a ship, represents the journey Indians took across the Kala Pani.

A majority of East Indian emigrants who came to Guyana were single males in the prime age group of between 20 and 30 years old. Fewer families, children and single women came to Guyana. The emigrants who came alone carried a low dependency burden with them since they had few dependents and were required to return home after completing their terms of contract, especially during the early phase of indentured emigration. East Indians were drawn principally from North and South India, and varied remarkably in caste and area of recruitment (districts) with the passing of time. The caste composition of East Indians: Brahmin (priest), Kshatriya (warriors and rulers), Vaishya (business and agricultural caste), and Sudras (menial caste), matched the caste composition of the area East Indians came from, which meant that more East Indians from the low caste than the high caste came to Guyana. Similarly, the religious composition of East Indians in Guyana mirrored the religious composition of India: 80 % being Hindus and 15 % being Muslims and others. However, the gender ratio in India did not match East Indian emigration. Of the total emigrants to Guyana only 25 % were women.

Migration has always been important to the lives of East Indians in India. East Indians migrated in and around India for employment and religious reasons. But the nineteenth century movement of East Indians to labour in Guyana and the Caribbean was not the norm. The decision to leave was indeed hard. East Indians in India were tied to the same environment with their families for generations. Being closed to love ones infused confidence, happiness, care, whether real or imagined, even in the midst of immense material poverty. Moreover, long distance East Indian migration was also suppressed by the caste system. Crossing the high seas (Kala Pani) to Guyana was synonymous with committing a serious crime that carried the risk of caste defilement and social exclusion. East Indians who undertook the sea voyage and returned home had to spend substantial sums of money to feast their gurus and undergo spiritual purification rites - which were sometimes rigorous and gruesome – in order to be reinstated into their respective caste. For this reason, many East Indians indentured themselves to Guyana and the Caribbean for the second and even third time and never returned to India.

Besides this, there was suspicion that the entire indenture system was fraudulent, reinforced by the negative news received from returning emigrants. Would-be East Indian emigrants were under the assumption that they would be denied wages, converted to Christianity, and forced to eat beef and pork. Brahmins were convinced that when they landed in Guyana their holy threads would be confiscated. Other East Indians believed they were shipped to have the oil extracted from their heads and for human sacrifices.

In spite of these impediments to migration, East Indians in large numbers embarked on the journey to Guyana for a variety of reasons. British colonialism in India strangled the local economy causing mass unemployment and displacement, and many East Indians salvaged themselves by accepting migration as a way out of economic hardship. The imposition of social oppression through semi-slavery and feudal relations also contributed to the number of migrants. The tide of emigration to Guyana was also buttressed by natural disasters in India, such as droughts, floods, and famines. Together, these calamities brought panic, despair, scarcity, starvation, death, broken village moral, disorganization and instability, leading to mass inland and overseas migration. Civil wars, like the great Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, also contributed to the pool of migrants who ventured to Guyana. There were, of course, East Indians who came to Guyana for eccentric and unusual reasons. There were those who became widowed, fleeing from family quarrels, while others left for sake of adventure, like the dancing girls who wound up in Suriname in 1870.

The manner by which these souls were recruited to labour in Guyana was, however, glaring, accompanied by grave irregularities, abuses and fraud that led some East Indian critics to label the indenture system, the Cooly Slave Trade. East Indians were rudely snatched from the jaws of their affectionate heartland as they went about doing their daily business. With tears streaming down from their eyes, they often would recall that unfortunate day when they were kidnapped, inveigled, and cozened by the wiles of unscrupulous recruiters into signing terms of contracts of which they had little knowledge. Political and economic instability in nineteenth century India permitted this fraudulent practice, aided by the work of local recruiters (Arkatis) - individuals of low moral standing - who roamed the countryside, hanging around famine stricken areas, roadsides, shelters, where they picked up the desperate and needy and induced them with inflated and misleading promises and pictures of Guyana. Being innocent and uneducated, these poor souls would ignorantly and willingly proceed to do what was asked of them, only to find themselves waiting at the Calcutta depot to be shipped to some unknown destination.

The Indian government was partially to blame for this vile practice. For over three quarters of a century, the system of procuring labour for Guyana was carried out with mass deception, and yet the Indian government maintained its position of benevolent neutrality, one that echoed sentiments not to get mixed up in any bargains and transactions with the parties involved. It was only when the worst cases of abuse became evident would the Indian government from time to time intervene and introduce reforms, often superficially.

The depot where East Indians were hoarded prior to embarkation to Guyana was a world of its own, comprised of East Indians from various backgrounds speaking different dialects, which under normal circumstances, many would have avoided. Sanitation was poor, and diseases, such as cholera, were rampant. Having passed the medical inspection - a procedure which was marred with loopholes – East Indians were marched to the ship; women went first and were sent to the aft, then families followed, and finally single men who took their position in the anterior of the ship. As they floated away on the four-month journey into the vast and deep ocean to Guyana, with only the sky above and roaring waves below, many would die, while others would be born.

On landing in Guyana, they were dispatched in-groups of 30-40 individuals to various plantations, occupying barracks which African slaves had recently vacated. Under the contract system, East Indians were bound on plantation for five years on fixed daily wage. At the end of this time, and another five years of industrial residence in Guyana, the labourers were entitled to free repatriation. The plantations East Indians worked and lived on were like prisons without walls. They were governed by a series of elaborate labour ordinances that effectively put the power in the hands of the planters. East Indians were subjected to strict labour laws, long hours of arduous work, flogged, and above all, they had to carry a pass. Failure to carry out these duties was met with the harshest punishment, fines, and imprisonment. But despite the authoritarian structure of the plantation system, East Indians continued to come to Guyana, averaging about 3,000 to 4,000 a year. Their presence revolutionized the sugar plantation, adding to the climax of prosperity so enjoyed by the planter class after decades of uncertainty.

In regards to those East Indians who renounced their rights to return passages in lieu of parcels of land to settle down, did so, in an atmosphere of unnecessary prejudice and hate. East Indians came to Guyana at a time when things were seen only through European lenses. Because they occupied ex-slave dwelling quarters and did jobs that Africans despised, East Indians were seen as inferior and were treated as such. Their religion and culture, being ancient and different, were often a sense of amusement and ridicule. The shallowness of Western culture to remotely acknowledge the “other” translated into stereotypes. East Indians were spoken of being more akin to monkey than man.

The Protector of Immigrants, the Stipendiary Magistrates, and Governors, who were entrusted to safeguard the rights of East Indians, were subservient to the views of the planters since both groups shared common interests. It was perhaps for this reason that East Indians relied on their own cultural resilience for survival. East Indians created semblance of lost India through religion, festivals, and feasts, to guide them. Close ties of Jahaja Bhai and Bahin (ship-brothers and sisters) developed and flourished regardless of caste, class or religion.

There were those, in the face of enormous adversity, who took militant actions only to be subdued by the more powerful colonial force through direct violence and the method of divide and rule. But not all had the tenacity to withstand the drudgery of plantation life, either passively or actively. Some East Indians, when goaded beyond what they could handle, turned to alcohol to mask the harsh reality of plantation life, while others, when losing the urge to go on, took their own lives, uttering words of despair.

But in spite of the dark chapters in East Indian history in Guyana, there are many bright pages to be recorded. East Indian agricultural skills have rescued Guyana from total disaster. Whether in the cane-fields under blazing tropical heat with half-protected bodies or in the rice fields in knee high water and mud, they have helped, in no small way, to build the economic structure of Guyana. East Indian agricultural skills still continue to feed Guyana and the Caribbean. Likewise, their persevering and thrifty habits have taught us how to save by example. In the words of George Lamming, “those Indian hands – whether in British Guiana or Trinidad – have fed us all. They are, perhaps, our only jewels of a true native thrift and industry. They have taught us by example the value of money; for they respect money as the only people with a high sense of communal responsibility can.”

In the view of social and political handicaps, East Indians accepted western forms of education, but never fully lost their cultural magnetism. Since this awakening to educational demands and necessities in the early part of the last century, East Indians have excelled in politics, law, literature, and medicine. East Indian communities are gratified to have produced the Jagans, the Luckhoos, and the Naipauls, to steer them, particularly in the period of turbulent post-independent Guyana. East Indians have shown that they have the capacity to respond appropriately to discrimination and difficulties like their forefathers under indenture.

The success of East Indians in business is equally pronounced. We can find them today as cattle rearers, land and shop owners, druggists, moneylenders, etc. East Indians can also be found in the civil service, of which two became Presidents of Guyana. East Indians' music, dance, and drama have charmed Guyana for years, and their foods, curry chicken and roti, have graced our homes and become national dishes.

Like everyone else's history, East Indians in Guyana had their doubts and hopes, their triumphs and tribulations, their tragedies and comedies. They have made significant contributions to Guyana in the fields of politics, economics and culture. Their love for the land has achieved results that constitute a sort of romance with tropical life. East Indians have aided greatly in the building of Guyana. It is only fitting that we remember when they arrived to Guyana on May 5th, a 167 years ago.

An Indentureship Timeline
1837 - John Gladstone suggests East Indian indentured labour as a solution to the drifting of Africans from the plantations to the towns. Permission is granted to bring 'Coolies' for his two plantations.

1838 - The first indentured labourers drawn from the hill areas of South India, arrive in Guiana. 156 East Indians arrive from Calcutta on the "Hesperus". They are under indenture for a five year period, and for the first part, they are housed and given rations, but are not paid. Great mistreatment of the labourers result in prosecution of some of the planters.

1839 - Four hundred German Rinelanders and Wurtembergers are enticed to British Guiana. (Almost all succumb to tropical diseases).

1843 - The end of the first period of indenture. Many of the labourers return to India.

The 1840's - England suspends the indentured labourer system. Immigrant labour from India, Portugal (mainly Madeira) and China is permitted, under Government control.

1853 - January 12th. The first contract Chinese labourers arrive in British Guiana on the "Glentanner". Most are assigned to Windsor Forest, Pouderoyen and La Jelousie estates.

1856 - February 18th,Georgetown riots - property of Portuguese destroyed.

1860 - March 11th. The first female Chinese labourers arrive on the "Whirlwind".

1874 - The last contract Chinese labourers arrive in Demerara.

1900 - October 18. The Jagans, Cheddi's parents, left Calcutta in the "Elbe". Arrived Demerara on January 5th, 1901.

1917 - The Government of India abolishes the indentured system. No more East Indian labour is allowed to enter Guiana.

1928 - March 19. Cheddi Jagan born.

1948 - The Enmore Tragedy occurs, with an attack against militant sugarcane workers. Workers Lallabagee Kissoon, Pooran, Rambarran, Dookhie, and Harry are killed. Later known as the Enmore Martyrs.

Scenes From the IAC Mela and Ramnavmi

Our cover girl, this young woman looks resplendent in her Indian wear at the IAC Mela.	Chairman of the Ramnavmi celebrations, held at the Cove and John Ashram last month, Pt. Haresh Tiwari addresses the crowd.
Thousands converged on the National Park on.	This family turned out to celebrate at Mela.
	Young people sporting traditional Hindu and Muslim clothing at the Mela.

Use Arrival Day to reflect on ancestors’ pain, suffering
PPP
The People’s Progressive Party (PPP) is saluting all Guyanese peoples this Arrival Day, according to a press release from the party.

The Party wished to salute in particular Guyanese of Indian and African descent whose arrival, the release said, into the colony not only changed the demographic profile of this country but also laid the foundations of what can be regarded as a modern nation-state.

“The Party is not unaware,” stated the release, “of the enormous sacrifices and challenges which our fore parents had to endure during the period of slavery and indentureship. Indeed, it is out of this struggle that the bonds of unity and solidarity were forged, which continues to characterise our existence until this day.”

The release noted the significance of the celebration of Independence from British colonial rule will also be celebrated this month.

“It is important that we use the opportunity of Arrival Day to reflect on the pain and suffering of our ancestors and resolve to remain faithful to their dreams of a free, prosperous and cohesive society.

There can be no doubt that Guyana today is infinitely richer for our diversity. In this regard, we should all resolve to protect our society from those who may seek to destroy our unity out of narrow selfish interests.

The People’s Progressive Party, the release concluded, for its part, would continue to protect the interests of all Guyanese, and to work towards the creation of a cohesive and united Guyana.

ARRIVAL OF THE EAST INDIANS TO GUYANA
BY: PARMANAND SUKHU
East Indians came to Guiana in 1838, 167 years ago, bringing with them their ancient customs and culture from India.

Emigration from India commenced in 1830 with the French and British colonies in 1834.Under a system of agreement, an order of the council in Britain was passed on July 12, 1837. Making provision for indentured immigrants to travel to Guiana for a term of five years. After their service, they were free to return to their homeland, and were entitled to a free return passage. Many of them choose to remain in the colony and serve as free labourers.

The emigration of Indians was important for the development of this country, as they proved more suitable for plantation work.

On January 13, 1838 the M.V. Whitby left the shores of India with 248 immigrants on board and arrived in Guyana on 5th May, 1838 after a voyage of 112 days. The M.V. Hesperus left Calcutta on 29 January, sixteen days after with by, with 165 immigrants on board, arriving at port Georgetown on May 5, 1838. During the voyage of the two ships, 18 immigrants died including two persons who fell overboard.

On January 26, 1845 Lord Hunter left Calcutta with 162 passengers on board and arrived in Georgetown on May 4; ten died on the way. Next was the Nester, which arrived on December 26, 1845, with 233 passengers and 500 hundreds bags of rice.

On February 2, 1846, Manchester arrived, then the Thetis, followed by the Tamerlane, the Marten Luther and Troy in succession, then the John Wickliffe, the Aurora, lady Makennaway, Latona, York, Victor Emanuel, Plantagenet, Ellen Borough, Siimla, Bann, Foyle, British Peer, The Bruce, SS Sutley, SS Indus, Sheila etc...etc...

And lastly, the SS Ganges which docked in Georgetown on April 18, 1917.

During the period-79 years, 238,979 indentured laborers were brought from India to Guyana to work under the colonial Administration. They came in 244 ships in a total of 534 voyages between 1838 and 1917. They were distributed to various locations on the coastland of Guyana. The plantation system and conditions were not favorable at all. These immigrants worked from sunrise to sun set and were so poorly paid that they were just able to exist. They slaved and provided luxurious living for their masters. They brought with them a rich culture and heritage, together with a language. They were disciplined and found satisfaction in honest and productive work. They were kind, hospitable and generous and they lived contended lives.

The foremost characteristic of the struggle of the East Indian Immigrants against the Indenture and plantation system, was their unity. Their unity had been forged on ship-

board. Those who came on the same ship were considered as ship brothers and sisters

Jahaji. A further contributing factor was that 'everyone came with an inter-faith attitude,

being mainly Hindus and Muslims, and there was also a belief that the cast system has been lost through the crossing of Kala Pani (Black Waters).

The plantation owners and the colonial administration feared the unity of the workers and used several techniques to destroy it . Far more significant were the uprisings which

frequently led to tragic deaths of Immigrant workers protesting illegal wages, bad conditions and the exploitation of their women.

They were eight main disturbances on the sugar plantations which led to shotings by the colonial police from Devoshire Castle on the Essequibo Coast and Enmore on the East Coast of Demerara, there were no trade unions at that time.

(1) At Devonshire Castle, Essequibo Coast, in September 1872, police fire at a crowd, killing five, wounding six.

(2) At Non Pariel, E.C.D. in October, 1886, mass shooting by the police again, six killed fifty-eight wounded.

(3) At Plantation Friends, Berbice in May, 1930, the police open fire again, killing six, wounding seven.

(4) At Lusignan, E.C.D. in September, 1912, a strike took place where several workers were transferred to other estates, one killed.

(5) At Rose Hall, Canjie, Berbice in March, 1913, a disturbance took place, fifteen killed.

(6) At Ruimveldt, Georgetown in April, 1924, as workers marched towards George-town, police opened fire killing 13, wounding 18. Also in April, 1924, a crowd marched from Providence to Georgetown carrying placards, flags and accom-panied by music, they were stopped at Ruimveldt, police opened fire killing two women who were not in the demonstration, A bullet passed through the wall of a house killing a female occupant.

(7) At Leonora, W.C.D. in February, 1939, police fired at a crowd trying to cross a bridge leading to the estate factory, four killed while several others were wounded.

(8) In 1948, strikes took place on several sugar plantations on the East Demerara estates, leading to a disturbance on June 16th at Enmore, as police opened fire on workers, killing five with 14 wounded.

Another important aspect of the struggle was the role played in it by women. At Devonshire Castle in 1872 women were in the forefront of the uprising; one woman confronted the magistrate and declared 'we will not move until the matter is settled'.

They refused the order to disperse stating 'we will die with our husbands'. Indians were being flogged with the cat-o-nine tails after which salt pickle was rubbed on-to their backs by managers' of the estates. Figures show that one out of every five immigrants who was brought before the court, was not for offences of criminals nature but for resisting the plantation system which was supported by the judiciary and the co1onial administration.

At Wismar in 1964, a riot took place, the entire Indian population was uprooted and their property set on fire by Africans who formed themselves into gangs. Over 200 houses and business places were robbed and destroyed, and over 16 00 East Indians were made homeless. Many were beaten to death others had to flee for their lives. Many women were raped and savagely maltreated in full view of the public, causing East Indians to leave Wismar and seek refuge elsewhere.

In 1962 and 1963 Indians were attacked and beaten on the streets of Georgetown, and their business places looted.

On January 12, 1998, in Georgetown, Indians going about their business peacefully were attacked and mercilessly beaten just because they were East Indians.

In the case of outstanding East Indians personalities, there is a long list emerging over the years to make their contribution domestically, regionally and internationally which is important. What would Guyana be without those thousands of East Indians who have played outstanding roles in the politics, the unions, the business, in Law, in medicine, the professions, in education, the intellectual development of this country, and it's age old practices and philosophy, Arts and Culture. Indian festivals and ceremonies and holy days. Indian song and dance and music. Indian learning and attitudes to life inherited from centuries ago.

In every walk of life there has been more than one equivalent to what Rohan Kanhai is to cricket or Dr. Cheddi Jagan to politics, Sir Shridath Rampaul to International Relations, SirLionell Luckhoo, Dr. Mohamed Shahabudeen and Dr. Fenton Ramsahoye to law, Dr. Rupert Roopnarine, Professor Frank Birbalsingh and Ravi Dev to education,Dr. Leslie Mootoo and Dr. Balwant Singh to medicine, Toolsie Persaud, Abdool Gafoor,Yesu Persaud, Kayman Sankar, Kissoons, Beharry and Mazaharally in Business, Rev. Dr.Dale Bisnauth, Pt. Reepu Daman Persaud and Mulavi Yacoob Ali to religious affairs. Major General Joseph Singh and Balram Raghubir to military discipline, Moses Dwarka to athletics, Shakira Baksh and Nalini Monasar as beauty ambassadors, Dr. Rovin Deodat and Ricky Singh to media, J.W. Chinapen and David Dabydin to poem, Rajkumari Singh, Lakshmi Kallicharran and ParmanandSukhu to Arts and Culture. There are so many outstanding personalities in song, music and dance Pita Pyaree, Gora Singh, Mohan Nandu, Nadira Shaw, Sammy Baksh, Pandit Prakash Gossai, Devindra Pooran and Gobin Ram just to name a few.

Today Indians have make-up the majority of the population and have risen to power, wealth and fame. They have excelled in all strata of activity in their community and have contributed in a great way to build Guyana's economic and social structure.

It was indeed the unity and hard work of the East Indians that brought overwhelming success to this country.

As we celebrate this important day, let us take stock and reflect on the qualities of these Immigrants. Let us dedicate our lives towards this cause in the interest of justice and goodwill so that we can hold our heads high and walk the path of these early settlers in Guyana.

Parmanand Sukhu is a Freelance Journalist/Writer/Researcher/ Social Worker/ Cultural Promoter/Community Leader/Counsellor/Rural Sergeant/J.P./C.O.A.

Promoting Culture, Parmanand Sukhu

Parmanand Sukhu with his three sisters during r